Public Places from Past to Future, Berlin: Pariser Platz & Potsdamer Platz Istanbul Taksim Republican Square Examples

As a result of the global cultural, economic and social events of recent years, the definition and utilization of public spaces have again become a matter of debate. Public spaces are basically places where people living in the city come together and meet. Additionally, they also have always been playing an important role in reorganization and development process of societies and cities. For centuries, city squares have been the most important public spaces of the cities. As well as being urban spaces, city squares are significant architectural elements in terms of representation of their surrounding structures. To the present day, city squares have been transformed by the ruling authorities and their different ideologies. In this study, two major squares in Berlin, Pariser Platz and Potsdamer Platz; and one square in Istanbul were selected for the case study. Located in the centre of Berlin, between Brandenburg Gate and Unter den Linden, Pariser Platz was the largest square of the city before World War II. But after the war, following the construction of the Wall, the square turned into an idle space. The Potsdamer Platz is also located in the centre of the city and in only 1 km south of the Pariser Platz. But these two squares different from each other strongly in terms of their structures and features. For instance, Pariser Platz is a dominant and closed square, whereas Potsdamer Platz is a point streets are directed towards. Since the days the city was being developed, these two squares preserved their identities with their different typologies over the course of history presenting World War II, the era of National Socialism and the erection of the Wall, to the present day. In regard to significance, the last square to be examined, located in Istanbul Taksim, can be considered as important as the city of Istanbul itself. With its long history dating back to the end of 1800s, it is a major square in Istanbul. Focusing on the utilization of Pariser Platz, Potsdamer Platz and Taksim Square, this study aims to examine how spatial quality and its criteria in open public spaces are defined, under the light of new trends in architecture using the methods of comparative analysis, literature research, observation and questionnaires.


Introduction
The lexical definition of the term "public" includes both the notions "related to public" and "belonging to the state". In general, "public space" is defined as the space that separates the society from the authorities.
According to Habermas, the most prominent features of public space are its exemption from the authority and its being a space where citizens of all different levels have access to. It is distinct from the authority of the state and also independent of the public authority. [1] Moreover, highlights two different aspects of public space: physical and symbolic. Physically, public spaces are sites where complaints, criticisms and wishes can be freely announced in the streets, parks and squares. Symbolically, they are sites where institutional considerations and freedom of press are emphasized. [2] The quality of public spaces (of streets, squares and similar components) plays an important role in the formation of the identities of cities.

Urban Space
All the spaces between buildings in the cities can be considered as outdoor spaces or urban social spaces. Everywhere is an urban space where structure made by Civil Engineering and Architecture 6(4): 212-226, 2018 213 humans "encloses the void", i.e. indoor and outdoor spaces, streets, parks and gardens. [3] In addition to being stylistic, architectural spaces are also integrated with characteristics of human life, because these spaces exist depending on their quality of utilization. Madanipour defines urban spaces as physical places within towns, cities and rural areas; that are accessible to anyone and can be entered by foreigners and locals with minimal restriction. [4] On the other hand, Rob Krier defines the city as a settlement which includes or has been built with urban features in accordance with the characteristics of a city. He especially emphasizes that in case of the absence of aesthetic criticism, any outdoor space would qualify for urban space. [5] Urban spaces should be able to respond to the needs of users. They should feature design elements conforming to the main needs of users, such as comfort, rest and active / passive participation. Being democratic spaces at the same time, these must protect the rights of the users and provide them with the opportunity to move freely. In addition to all these features, these spaces must be designed to be accessible to all users without difficulty. [6]

Public Squares As Urban Spaces
Throughout history, squares have been places where city dwellers can meet, rest and take a breath and also where they can share with others living in the city. The concept of the square has been at the forefront not only in today's world, but during many periods of history. In many languages, there is a word for the concept: The Greek call it "agora", the Romans "forum", the Italians "piazza", the Spanish "plaza" and the Germans "Platz".
While Paul Zucker defines the square as a psychological parking place within public space, according to Schulz the square is the most striking element of urban texture, an urban space with clearly specified boundaries, which is possible to imagine in the simplest manner. Vitruvius states that a city square should be designed directly proportional to the population living in the city, i.e. not too small to be useless and not too large for the low population to get lost in it.
Alternatively, Moughtin has made a regional assessment and related the complexity and functional continuity of the Mediterranean cities to people's way of living, the culture and their aesthetic judgments. [7] In Mediterranean cities, life happens mostly outdoors. If we were to examine Turkey based on this example, life in Turkish villages (the smallest settlement units) mainly focuses on either the coffee shops located in squares or in the little spaces shopkeepers "invent" in front of their shops by putting a couple of chairs where they communicate with their surroundings. All these observations seem to confirm Moughtin's thesis.
The main cause that people are attracted to the squares is the human factor. The higher the number of people using the space, the more attractive the area will be for other potential users. The level of visual quality and the appropriate arrangements for activities such as walking and resting, are also attractive features forurbanites.

Square Typologies
A lot of studies have been conducted on different square types. One of the most widely accepted among these is Paul Zucker's theory. [8] Zucker categorized squares into five different groups:  The Closed Square, where the space is self-contained,  The Dominated Square, where the space is directed towards the main building,  The Nuclear Square, where the space forms around a center,  The Amorphous Square, a space with unclear boundaries,  The Grouped Square, where the space is formed by combined spatial units According to Zucker, the ideal square has " … the most perfect form possible in Hellenistic and Roman time periods, independent of certain periods or architectural trends. It then emerges again in the 17th and 18th centuries". An example of such a square is the Place des Voges in Paris.
The key to the enclosure of a square is the method which its corners are designed with. In general, the more open the corners are, the less a sense of enclosure it generates; on the contrary, the more constructed and integrated they are, the more enclosed it feels. [8]  Kevin Lynch says that how we use buildings, spaces, squares and cities is closely related to how we remember them. He underlines that the perception of the city is a longer process than that of a building. Additionally, the perception process of a square depends on the meanings imprinted on our minds according to certain memories based on the time we spent and the reason we were there for. That is, this perception process varies according to the person, their world view and culture. [9] [10] About the use of cities and squares, many different observations have been made. But the most noteworthy among these belongs to Jan Gehl. In a pedestrian city, you see people in the streets because they keep walking from one place to another; whereas in automotive cities there are only cars on the streets. If you are in a square with well-planned functions, people will meet there. If there are no squares and no city life, traffic signs and street lamps transform into meeting places. The city of Venice is the best example of this. When a newly married couple comes out of the church, they do not get in a black limousine, they walk away from among the invitees by foot. Or, a musician casually may walk away from you, carrying their instrument under their arm. [11]

Berlin: Pariser Platz & Potsdamer Platz Examples
The history of Berlin dates back to the end of the 12th century. It was established in 1190 as two small fishing villages named Berlin and Cölln on the north and south banks of the Spree river. By the year 1230, as a result of the increased population in the towns, building islands began to form and the town borders started to expand. Then the two towns were merged under the name of Berlin in 1307 and became a single town.
In 1647,the Emperor Friedrich Wilhelm I let linden trees be planted along the road which he used to travel from the palace to the Tiergarten Park (a city park today), where he used to hunt. Turned into an axis, or a boulevard as a result of this decision, this road then was renamed as "Unter den Linden", which means "under the linden trees" and still exists today. [12] The city, which was trapped in the city walls towards the end of the 17th century, spread beyond the city walls and expanded to the north and the south of the Spree River. The first settlement beyond the walls was the "Dorotheenstadt" town, which was built by the emperor as a gift to his wife, Sophie Dorothea. (Today, the streets of Dorotheenstadt are still conserved in the center of Berlin.) Due to the increase of trade in the city, customs walls were erected around it in order to collect tax from the outsiders. [13] In the middle of the 18th century, Emperor Friedrich Wilhelm I appointed architect Philipp Gerlach the director of the Imperial Construction. Gerlach drafted a plan for Berlin to grow in an organized way. According to this plan, three differently shaped squares were designed for the city: square, octagon, circular. The square-shaped one is located in front of the Brandenburger Tor, at the end of Unter den Linden avenue, and today its name is Pariser Platz. The octagon square is in front of Potsdamer Tor, and is now called Leipziger Platz. Lastly, the Mehring Platz with the circular form is in front of Hallesches Tor. Today, these three squares planned by Gerlach still maintain their original forms. Although numerous urban plans have been devised since the Gerlach years, no authority, city planner, or architect has ever attempted to make a change in these squares.  As a result of Berlin reaching a population of 500,000, it was time for a new city plan in 1862. This plan, known as the Hobrecht-Plan, was prepared by the city planner James Hobrecht. The most important feature of Hobrecht's plan was that it aimed to protect Gerlach's and used its squares, octagons and circular forms in different parts of the city, however in smaller scales. [14] The National Socialists, who came into power in 1933 under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, left significant marks in Germany and Europe, especially in Berlin. Hitler delivered his fascist opinions mostly in large public meetings held in the squares of Berlin. Inspired by the city of Rome, he wished to re-design the city of Berlin as a great monumental city for centuries to come, and wanted to make it the capital of Europe. He named this project of his "The Great Germany" and appointed Albert Speer its chief architect. Presenting his design with models, Speer had featured large scale public buildings, arches of triumph and wide boulevards in the project. But the Nazi era, which ended with World War II, has not had the opportunity to realize these projects. One important thing to note is that despite all their extensive and idealistic designs, Hitler and Speer never intended to change the city squares and forms which were designed by Gerlach.
By the end of the World War II, Germany was divided into four parts as the US, French, UK and Soviet Regions. Berlin stayed in East Germany under Soviet control. And the city of Berlin, a very important symbol for the country, was divided into four different regions just like the rest of Germany, despite its location in the centre of East Germany. While the Soviet Union maintained control of the east of the city, the USA, France and the UK governed the west part.
West Germany and therefore, West Berlin, therefore, developed rapidly thanks to the Marshall Plan. The difference of the pace of development between the East and West parts led to a serious economic gap between the two sides. [15] In 1952, the East side closed its borders to the West side. With the support of the Soviet Union, the East German government started to take measures and on August 13th, 1961erected a barbed wire fence between West and East Berlin. On the following day, the Brandenburg Gate, the symbol of the city, was closed and the foundation of the wall was laid onAugust, 15th. The wall, about 160 km long, was a structure that completely surrounded West Berlin like a cage. With the construction of the wall, spaces that once were the heart of the city, especially the Pariser and Potsdamer Squares designed by Gerlach became completely idle and inactive. [14]  The "Wall of Shame" era that lasted for 28 years, ended on November 9th, 1989 when the wall was destroyed with an immense public support, following the agreement of the Western and Eastern German authorities. The Germans, who pushed the wall out of their lives physically, protected the wall completely at some points in the city in order not to forget what they had to endure during its existence. Where the wall first had been, they also either preserved or highlighted its traces using various flooring materials.
The Berlin city, which has undergone a major restructuring because of the re-union of East and West Berlin, hosted many national and international project competitions during this process. Many sociologists, urban planners and architects have pointed out that this was not a development of only a city, butof a society as well. [12] Moreover, Helmut Frank, architect and the 216 Public Places from Past to Future, Berlin: Pariser Platz & Potsdamer Platz Istanbul Taksim Republican Square Examples curator of the exhibition "Two Germanys" is known to have stated the following: "In addition to protect people from weather conditions, it is possible to create all kinds of useful spaces with architectural design. It may even lead to the construction of a new society and to give it a spatial form and a meaning."

Pariser Platz
Pariser Platz is one of the three most important squares of the city located at the end of the Unter den Linden Boulevard in the Mitte district, the center of Berlin. Also, the square is one of three designed by Philipp Gerlachi, Friedrich Wilhelm I's architect. Pariser Platz is the one that is in square form. That is the reason why its name was Viereck Square until 1814, but then it was changed to Pariser Platz in memory of the Paris occupation of Prussian troops in March 1814. The Brandenburg Gate, one of the gates of the customs walls surrounding the city of Berlin in the 18th century,is also in this square. [13] Back in the time, the gates in the customs walls were given the names of the cities they were directed towards and Brandenburg Gate got its name for the same reason because it was directed towards Brandenburg.
Since it is surrounded by buildings, Pariser Platz is considered as a closed square. As Moughtin pointed out, the more buildings there are around a square, the stronger it provides a feeling of enclosure. But Pariser Platz is not only a closed square, but also a dominant square, due to the presence of the Brandenburg Gate, which is a monumental building the square itself is directed towards. [16] Pariser Platz, one of the most important squares of the city until the Second World War, was one of the intensely bombarded sites during the war. All buildings were destroyed except the Brandenburg Gate. The wall structure, which divided Berlin in half passed immediately by the Brandenburg Gate, so Pariser Platz became a completely idle square afterwards. Following all these devastations,the authorities of East Germany have reached very important decisions for the vacant square. In order not to lose the square form of the place and to make the boundaries of the square clear, trees were planted around it. The major reason for them to do this despite the hash war conditions was the special place the square have had for centuries in the urban memories of German people. Not only the square form, but also the tracks of the structures surrounding the square and the differences of elevation were preserved. [17] After the decision to demolish the Wall in 1989, the first demolitions began with public cooperation, at Pariser Platz, in front of the Brandenburg Gate. After the re-union of East and West Germany under the name of the German Democratic Republic, Berlin was declared as the capital once again. With the act of the Senate of Berlin, preparations began to make Pariser Platz the center of the city again. Because the German Parliament building "Reichstag"was located very close to the square, the administrative buildings of the state were also positioned close to the square. The Adlon Hotel, that was once in the square, was rebuilt and took its former place. As part of the revitalization project, the American and French Embassies, the Academy of Art (Akademie der Künste), some office buildings, and the DZ Bank building designed by Frank Gehrywere built. [17] (a) (b) (c) Since the year of 2002, Pariser Platz is completely closed to vehicle traffic and a pedestrian-only square. Today, users of the square mainly consist of tourists and students who study the square and draw sketches of it. The materials used in the reconstruction of the square were selected based on its history. While cube stones were used to emphasize pedestrian paths and elevation differences, cut stones were preferred in places which open to vehicle traffic at certain times of the day. In the process of reconstruction of the buildings surrounding the square, a number of criteria for the colors and materials have been set to prevent the existence of irrelevant styles.
Pariser Platz, the liveliest square in Berlin today, is one of the most important squares in Europe, where urban people can freely communicate their wishes and complaints to the authorities. In addition to this, many festivals organized across the continent and New Year's celebrations are being hosted by the square. It is also possible to understand the fact that the square is the most important place for the city, looking at the description of "The Symbol of Separation and Union".

Potsdamer Platz & Leipziger Platz
Leipziger Platz is the one with the octagon form among the three squaresGerlach designed. This square is located at Potsdam Gate on the customs walls surrounding Berlin. At the eastern side of the door is Leipziger Platz, while the other side had no name until 1823. After the architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel redesigned the Potsdam Gate in 1823, the area to the west of the door has gained a more circular and square form. With the fall of the customs walls towards the end of the 19th century, a great transformation took place in Berlin. It is during this period, when the first railway line was also built in the city. The train line from Potsdam, arriving from a point 26 km away from the city, ended at Potsdamer Station, which today the Potsdamer Platz takes its name from. [18] Potsdamer and Leipziger Squaresbegan to be examined as a whole after the customs walls were demolished. With the construction of the train station, the trade in the area gained momentum too. Numerous hotels, casinos and business centers were built. With the increase in the use of motor vehicles, the first traffic light in Europe was also placed in this square. The years between 1920-1930 in the Potsdamer Platzwere the years when the bustle in the city reached its peak. During those years, the square could compete with Piccadilly and Times Squareswith its use and functional alternatives. But Potsdamer Platz left its glamorous days behind when the National Socialists came into power and "Germania", dreamed by Adolf Hitler and designed by Albert Speer was brought to agenda. Establishing the city along the axis of Unter den Linden, ignored the remaining parts of the city.
During World War II, the most intensely bombed territory in Berlin was Potsdamer Platz. All the buildings in the square have either been damaged or demolished. After the post-war wreckage has been removed, the square was left utterly empty. Furthermore, the fact that the Potsdamer and Leipziger Squares were separated from each other by the Wall completely eliminated the possibility of these squares to be revived. However, despite all this, during the recreational phase of Leipziger Platz, the East Berlin government decided that the city senate historical forum should remain the same; as they did for the Pariser Platz.
This was achieved by using the trees to highlight the tracks. The idea that they should stick to the old system of city blocks and networks, which is taking its roots from the past, can be in fact applied to every region of the city that took part in the process of renewal. Leipziger Platz, beginning to be rebuilt thanks to the end of warfare, was surrounded by buildings characteristic of the "Iron Curtain" countries, because it was located within the borders of East Berlin.
With the demolition of the Wall in 1989, the Senate of Berlin decided to expropriate the area that surrounds the square. With the international competition forredesigning of Potsdamer Platz in 1991, a major transformation started in the square. 17 world-renowned architectural offices participated in the contest. The architectural office of Hilmer & Sattler from Munich won the master plan phase. Because of the serious need for resources for the renewal project, the prepared masterplan was divided into four sections and sold to Daimler, Sony, Beisheim and Park Kolonnaden. Having announced that this area was going to be Berlin's new face, these companies contracted with renowned architects such as Renzo Piano and Helmut Jahn. [19]  The project consists of 50% office, 20% residence and 30% shopping area. The Sony Center project, financed by Sony, was designed by German architect Helmut Jahn. The most important feature of the building is the inner courtyard parallel to Potsdamer Street. Surrounded by office buildings, the courtyard is covered with glass that is suspended at a height of 103m and also has a symbolic quality for the design. The architect of the project's other phase, financed by Daimler, is Renzo Piano from Italy. The most prominent feature of Piano's design is sustainability.
The Berlin Film Festival is being held in these places. Unlike the most common square typologies, Potsdamer Platz is a square which is supported by streets directed towards it.

4.The History and Development of Galata District
One of the most prominent physical features of historical Istanbul is its three large main units of settlement: The historical peninsula (the walled city), Galata and lastly Uskudar which are divided by the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus.
This particular feature had been preserved for the most part of the reign of the Ottoman Empire, until the city started to transform progressively after the 19th century, especially manifesting in Galata with settlements that stretched forth into Beyoglu and Taksim Square. [19] According to Byzantine historian Skarlatos, Galata, a small village with the name of Sykai back then, was surrounded with walls as a consequence of its rising importance during the time of Theodosius II (403-450). It was while Justinianos I reigned over the empire, when development gained pace and urbanization started (527-565). The city was then named after him, Justiniane, to highlight the progress of urbanization. [20] Having continued to grow as a separate city from Constantinople during the reign of Justinianos I, Sykai was never perceived apart from the capital. Accordingly, the first Byzantine bridge was constructed to connect Galata and Constantinople. [21] Since the time of Tiberios II (579-582), the district had been known as "ta Galatau", meaning "from Galata", based on a person from the region, named Galatea. [20] As for the Byzantines residing on the walled peninsula, the Galata region was called "Pera" which means "the opposite shore". [19] The district became a major centre of commerce, as trade flourished in years, along with the development. People from Genoa, Venezia, Pisa and Europe began to settle down in the area. Through the privileges bestowed upon them, the Genoese gained influence in Galata and seized control of commerce. The Byzantine Empire, facing financial difficulties in the 13th century, turned to the Genoese for support, who demanded Galata in return. The emperor accepted this, but he wanted the walls demolished in return. As a result, the reign of Genoa began in Galata. During their time, the district was transformed into a Mediterranean-Italian city with stone buildings, narrow, steep streets with stairs in orthogonal layout, shops, churches and a central square. (Figure 9) [20] In 1453, the Genoese did not resist the Ottoman Emperor Mehmed II during the conquest of Constantinople. As a reward, he left Galata as it was and made an agreement with the Genoese which allowed them to keep their property rights and religious beliefs. [21] After the conquest, along with the Muslim population settling in Galata, mosques and wooden buildings were constructed in the district as well.
At the end of the 16th century, there were a few vineyard cottages, mostly forested land, and a graveyard in the region outside of the walls. As a result of Constantinople's conquest (the city would be called Istanbul from that point on) and the Muslim settlers coming to the city, the population grew considerably, particularly within the walls of Galata. Wanting to avoid the distress caused by denseness, first the embassies, then the wealthier part of the population began to move out of the walls.
In time, the Genoese reign over Galata and Beyoglu was passed to the French. The first embassy building in Galata was built by the French as well. Later on, they obtained some privileges which would be called "the capitulations" in the next years. As a result of these privileges, foreign trade increased and numerous warehouses and shops opened in Galata. Because of the steep terrain, narrow roads and the need to be situated close to the harbor, commerce could not expand upwards, but instead replaced the housing areas along the coast. The merchants who had to leave their homes there settled in Beyoglu. [22] These privileges acquired and markets established also resulted in a considerably increased French population in the region. It was starting from this period, when the significant French influence on Beyoglu which is still felt even today, started to be formed. In the following years, the English and Italians benefited from these privileges as well. Merchants coming from these countries got united and established the Levant Company. From that point on, its employees and representatives were to be called the Levantines. [22] In the middle of the 17th century, an axis was formed in the Pera district, where the embassies, mansions and churches existed. The non-Muslim population named this axis as "Grand Rue de Pera", while the Muslims called it "Cadde-i Kebir" (meaning "the great, grand street"). After the proclamation of the Republic, the name "Istiklal Street" was given to it, which still exists today. Giving Pera the impression of a European city, this axis was a narrow dirt road without pavement. During those days, the houses along the street belonged to wealthy people only. [19] Reaching to the point where the Taksim Square exists today, this long axis was the convergence of usually down-sloping streets, with stairs in places, as a result of the area's topography.
In the year of 1700, Beyoglu spreaded between the funicular railway (the historic Tunel today) and Galatasaray, to the both sides of Istiklal Street and its side streets. During the Sultan Selim III's reign, relations with Europe increased and transportation also became easier. Thus, a lot of Europeans came to Istanbul and settled down in Pera. Many other European countries opened embassies on the Grand Pera Street in those years, too. [19] This period was called "The Tulip Era" in the Ottoman Empire. The old government methods were giving way to new approaches and steps were taken for a new society, taking the European way of life as an example. Many works of architecture have been completed during those years. In and around Pera, numerous buildings were constructed for which the plans had been drafted in Europe. One of these buildings is the Embassy of the Netherlands. [19]

4.1.The Buildings and Places Marking the Taksim Republic Square and Its Boundaries
During the 18th century, the boundaries of the neighbourhood expanded to where Taksim Square is today, as a result of increasing population and housing development. But this is not the sole reason why the city, previously inside the walls, started to expand. There are numerous other reasons such as the replacement of the Ottoman Palace within the city, the rights bestowed upon the minorities as part of The Rescript of Gulhane (e.g. alleviating the constraints for settlement) and the physical reforms in governmental and military areas. (Figure 10) [19]  The settlement area expanding to Kasimpasa on the Golden Horn side and to Besiktas and Ortakoy on the Bosphorus side led to a shortage of water eventually. To solve this problem, in 1731 the Sultan Mahmud I had a dam constructed in the Belgrad Forest to supply water to the area. [23] Via aqueducts and pipes, water was being transported from this dam to a large, 90 meter long reservoir which forms one edge of the Taksim Square today. A special construction to hold the reservoir, a maksem (originally Arabic, "maksim", meaning "the place where the water is being served out to different places") was built next to it. Constructed using limestone, it had an octagonal layout, and was covered with a pyramidal roof. The reason that the area ended up to be called "Taksim" was this very system, sending out portions of water to surrounding neighbourhoods, which is an act that can be translated into Turkish as "taksim etmek" (Arabic originally). (Figure 11) [20]  Following this, the "Grand Rue de Pera" (Istiklal Street), starting from Galata Mevlevihanesi (the Galata Lodge for Mevlevi Dervishes) on Tünel (Funicular) Square and passing by the Galata Sarayi Centre (educational facilities built by Bayezid II for conscript boys) was extended to the maksem. [19] The settlement in the Taksim area did not begin immediately after the maksem was completed. During the 19th century, while the Ottoman army was being reformed, the settlements kept growing around the barracks built for the housing and educational needs of the soldiers, a group of prestige for the society. The barracks were located on the peripheral land surrounding the residential areas and were of monumental scale, shaping the skyline. [24] Istanbul's second barrack after Selimiye, the Artillery Barrack was also built during this period on the slopes leading to Dolmabahce, a large, flat prairie in front of the maksem at the time. Identifying the Taksim neighbourhood and also an additional boundary to the maksem, the Artillery Barrack is an eclectical building with a rectangular layout, a large courtyard in the middle, bulbous domed towers on the facades and horseshoe doors and windows; covering the entire block where the Taksim Gezi Park is located today. (Figure 12) Military stables were located in the south of the barrack (where the Monument of Republic and the undefined empty area beyond are today), while in the west, a vast, flat terrain for military training purposes outstretched in the northern direction to the building. In the southeast, there was the Great Cemetery, called "Grand Champs des Morts" by foreigners, on the area where the Ataturk Cultural Center and Gumussuyu Hospital are nowadays. [25] As a result of the settlement areas following the Istiklal Street axis and reaching the maksem, neighbourhoods started to form in Harbiye as well and Istiklal Street transformed into a European-like, wide boulevard, turning north at the maksem and connecting Harbiye and Beyoglu through the training field and the barracks. [24] Together with this street, Taksim Square had come to function as a junction point for the city. Additionally, it was all those buildings and other connected facilities that gave Taksim Square its identity of being a ceremonial area.
After the proclamation of the Republic on October 23rd, 1923 and with the new Republic of Turkey founded, the economic and political reforms throughout the country had reflections on the cities' development plans. One of the most significant examples of this in Istanbul is the Taksim Republic Square. The plan includes a monument of the Republic placed near the beginning of Istiklal Street, right to the east of the maksem, along the axis of the Republic Street reaching Harbiye. [24] The monument was designed by the Italian sculptor Pietro Canonica with four different compositions on four sides, depicting different scenes from the War of Independence and the Proclamation of Republic. Its pedestal and environmental surroundings with a circular layout were designed by the Italian architect Giulio Mongeri to serve as ceremonial grounds in baroque style. An expansion of this circular layout followed the opening of the monument in 1928, to enable the tramway travel around it. [23] In the next years, the barrack stables had been partly demolished and two-storey, terraced cafés were built on the west side facing the monument. They were designed in circular shape, accordingly to the monument and its surroundings. By the end of the 1920's, the Taksim Republic Square had become a complete centre for Istanbul, with its shape and location. This caused the Artillery Barracks and the training area at its west to lose their functions. Since there were not enough fields in the city for football matches, the barrack's courtyard was used as a football field for a while. The training field on the other hand, was redesigned according to a grid plan. With its five-and six-storey apartment buildings, this new neighbourhood was named as Talimhane. The three-storey Kristal Club was built on the monument-facing front side of this grid plan. [23] A new period of interference began for Taksim, when the new development plan designed in 1936 by the French architect and urban planner Henri Prost was approved in 1939. According to this plan, the barracks were to be demolished and a park was going to be built instead of it. As a first step, the stables and terraced cafés in the south of the barracks were torn down and the land was rebuilt as green area. These demolishings caused Taksim Square to lose its balanced scale and squeezed it into the corner of a large rectangular area, whereas it was being defined by the monument and the circular shape around it in the past. Consequently, the Artillery Barracks that has long lost its purpose was demolished as well and "Inonu Gezisi", an urban park in geometrical style was built on the area instead. (Figure 13) (Figure 14) [20]  The absence of an opera house until the middle of the 20th century was a huge lack for the Republic of Turkey, that had been facing Western Europe since its day of foundation. In the plan he prepared, Henri Prost also mentioned the need for a cultural center in the area. In the end of the 1930's, the decision to build an opera house on Taksim Square was made. Because In the early 1970's, the Kristal Club which still remained in front of Talimhane was torn down and the area was integrated to the square. In 1986, Taksim Square was an amorphous void without boundaries, when as a result of the controversial planning movement during Bedrettin Dalan's time as mayor, part of the buildings in Tarlabasi were demolished and the new 36 meter wide Tarlabasi Boulevard was opened. (Figure 16) The Gezi Park, located about 1 storey (4 meters) above Taksim Square's level made way for some changes both in the scale and dimensions of the square, turning it into an important public space for national ceremonies, celebrations and protests. In the following years, numerous bus stops and metro stations added to the square made it additionally into a transfer center for Istanbul's transportation network. This started to diminish the social meaning of the square and laid the foundation for the governmental bans on ceremonies and events. [24]  With a history and a process of transformation of two hundred years long, the Taksim Republic Square is also interesting as far as its various forms during these periods are concerned. When examined in the context of the surrounding buildings and elements, there is a "hard floor space" on the square level, a "space adorned with natural elements" on the level of the Gezi Park. It also is a "free space" according to the perceptive and wide-angled differences on various levels, an "irregular space" because of the variousness of the surrounding buildings and building elements and the formal and functional differences of these, and lately a "dynamic space" owing to all the movement caused by transportation and events. [24] Looking at it through the lens of Paul Zucker's classification of squares according to their macroform features (as mentioned in the first part of the paper), the Taksim Republic Square can both be defined as a "Nuclear Square" and an "Amorphous Square". In nuclear squares, space is typically formed around the center, which in the case of Taksim Square, is the Monument of Republic. On the other hand, the amorphous squares are unlimited spaces without specified boundaries, lacking form, shape and organization. The existence of numerous arrangements that compete with each other in disturbing the square's shape provides enough reason to classify the square as one. (Figure 17) (Figure 18) The Taksim Square is connected to numerous streets at five different angles: to the Cumhuriyet Street on Harbiye side, to Inonu and Mete Streets on Gumussuyu side, to Kazanci Slope from next to The Marmara Hotel and to Istiklal and Siraselviler Streets on Beyoglu and Cihangir side. In the context of Rob Krier's evaluation of streets connected to squares, it also answers to the description of "four or more streets connecting to the square curvilinearly".
In the light of the above-mentioned examination of the square's form and design, it is constructive to look at it from a socio-cultural perspective. The effects of centralized administration ideologies on urban and public space design apply to Istanbul too, as it does to every city throughout the world. The most significant examples of this were realized in Taksim Square especially. Many projects were made for the square and the surrounding area in the 1980's during the president Ozal's time, and in the 2000's when Erdogan's government was in power. During all these years, the square has been the center for demonstrations, entertainment and protests.
With the start of the 1960's, the number of protests and demonstrations held in Taksim Square particularly increased in direct proportion to the rising population of the city. Some important events were; • 1 May 1977 Labour Day Celebration (BloodyMay 1st) • 5 June 1977 Bulent Ecevit Demonstration • Gezi Park Protests • Protests for the Coup Attempt on July 15th The first big demonstration held in the square was the Labour Day Celebration on May 1st in 1977, which has come to known as "Bloody May 1st" in years. While a huge crowd of labourers from all around Turkey was celebrating, as a result of a sudden fire into the crowd, 34 people were either shot or crushed in the stampede and died. After this incident, Taksim Square has gained special meaning for celebrations on May 1st each year. A large poster on the square-facing facade of the Ataturk Cultural Center serves as commemoration of the old days when celebrations were being held peacefully. The same facade has been used for numerous celebrations and protests thereafter. (Figure 19) [26] Another turning point in Turkey's history, the Gezi Park incidents happened again in Taksim Square. Despite of the Cultural and Natural Heritage Preservation Board's decision against it, the government's attempt of rebuilding the Artillery Barracks (demolished in 1940) on its former location, the Gezi Park, as part of the Taksim Pedestrianization Project in 2013, and the construction equipment sent to the park for this purpose ignited the fuse for these protests. Starting as an environmental demonstration, soon it turned into a nation-wide, anti-imcumbent series of protests as a result of the government's persistent policy and the disproportionate force the police used against the public. The protests began on May 27th, 2013 and continued into September, decreasing gradually. 10 people were killed in total throughout the country and thousands were injured. Just like as it was on Bloody May 1st, the Ataturk Cultural Center functioned again as a huge billboard for posters 224 Public Places from Past to Future, Berlin: Pariser Platz & Potsdamer Platz Istanbul Taksim Republican Square Examples and placards during these protests. (Figure 20) The most recent major public protest in Taksim was held during the coup attempt on July 15th, 2016. All around the country, people poured onto the streets to show that they were against the coup; and the center for the protests in Istanbul was the Taksim Republic Square. The protests went on for about one month. There were also many large public meetings held by political parties where hundreds of thousands have attended. (Figure 21) Although Taksim Square is not a space used for meetings and demonstrations anymore today, some organizations can still be held on special days under dispensation by the Governorship of Istanbul.
The Taksim Republic Square has been etched not only in Istanbul's, but also in the Turkish Republic's urban memory. Its conceptual and historical aspects are of very high significance for the public, as Taksim has always been the center for important events regarding public life. Today, it is the crucial point for many events, most notably transportation and culture. The square is an ideological symbol and has been an area for demonstration of power for governments and administrative forces since its first day. It is also a square with a high rate of public participation.

Spatial Quality
To conclude from all the previous concepts and instances, it is necessary to emphasize the importance of spatial quality in a city. There are two important theories for the evaluation of spatial quality. One of these belongs to Kevin Lynch. [9] Lynch groups the necessities for a good city structure in five categories:  Vitality -(A healthy environmental structure and design)  Sense -(The things the space makes the user feel, the attachment to the place)  Fit -(The user being able to adapt to the place in a short amount of time)  Access -(to activities, places, etc.)  Control -(Security)  Sherwin Greene's design-related spatial quality theory consists of: [28]  Function -(Continuity, Safety, Comfort, Variety)  Space order -(Cohesion, Clarity, Continuity, Balance)  Identity -(Focus, Unity, Character, Feature)  Attraction -(Scale, Suitability, Vitality, Harmony) L. Davies Yeang, in his book "Quality of Place", explored spatial quality in 13 articles, under four main groups and aimed to analyze the space with a number of questions. The questionnaire results were evaluated on the chart. [28] The space quality of the squares was assessed by a questionnaire consisting of 13 criteria that Llewelyn Davies Yeang analyzed for space quality. A total of 100 people were interviewed, 50 people for Taksim Cumhuriyet Square and 50 people for Pariser Platz.
The work done for the Taksim Republic Square was made mostly by the users in the square and its vicinity. 15% of the square users are from outside Istanbul and 85% of them are from Beyoğlu district, where Taksim is affiliated. This is because of the fact that there are more commercial activities in the districts of the Beyoğlu near to the square and the residential settlements are also located in the Golden Horn, Galata and Karaköy areas. 25% of the users stated that they came to use the eating and drinking places around the square and 30% of the users stated that they came for entertainment places in the vicinity of the square. When we asked to users, "What does Taksim Republic Square mean for you?", 50% of the users responded to the mess and "How often do you reach the plaza? " the majority of the users gave the public transportation response.
In the survey study for Pariser Platz, 10% of the Square users live in Berlin and the rest come from outside Berlin. When we asked to users, "What purpose do you use the square? ", 75% stated that they are in the square for touristic purposes and "Where do you expect to be if you need to wait someone in the square? " the vast majority of users gave the answer to the Brandenburg Gate as meeting place.
These squares have been reviewed in the context of Physical and Environmental Qualities, under the headings of Sociability, Uses & Activities, Comfort & Image and Access & Linkages. There are strengths and weaknesses of these all squares. (Fig.22) As a result of all these evaluations, it should not be difficult to comprehend the significance of these squares for the cities they are located in. It is possible to conclude that users do not avoid using these squares despite some negative features and design problems.
The result shows us that a good public place must have Physical and Environmental Qualities. To give the people opportunity to use the place and make them feel secure and happy.