The Impact of Conservancy Fragmentation on the Population Distribution and Feeding Patterns of Roan Antelope 2000-2009: The Case of Chiredzi

The Zimbabwe’s fast track land reform programme caused among other thing significant conservancy fragmentation which led to serious changes in wildlife distribution and their feeding patterns. This study sought to investigate the impact of conservancy fragmentation on the population distribution and feeding patterns of the Roan antelope (hippotragus simum) in Chiredzi river conservancy of Chiredzi north district. Observations were only carried out by the researcher on the state of the conservancy and feeding habits of roan antelope. The capture and recapture technique in this research was employed to select the species sample that were systematically chosen. The stratified systematic sampling was used to minimise bias in selection as well as to determine the point locations where the Roan Antelopes were to be captured. The species were captured using the trapping net in which the species were driven into the net. This method was environmentally safe in that life was valued because injuries of species during the capturing process were avoided. Four captured Roan Antelopes were fitted with the collar coding system, where the calcium detector was used for remote sensing. This helped in easy tracking and identification during observation and surveying. The observation and tracking process consume twelve months since they observed in four different season of the year. This plays a critical role in analysing the state of feeding area as well as captive breeding area. Field measurements were done on the observed roan antelope and the carrying capacity of the conservancy. The research findings revealed that as from 2000 to 2009 the population of Roan Antelope declined by almost 83%. It is concluded that it is very important to implement appropriate conservancy management strategies for wildlife especially for Roan Antelope. It is therefore recommended that there should be the introduction of intensive protected zone (I P Z) in order to restore the population of the Roan Antelope in the Chiredzi River Conservancy.


Background to the Study
Management of wildlife started in the early 18th century when, more than a million flora and fauna species were at high risk of extinction. This was as a result of 17th century's industrial revolution that intensively ravaged the flora and fauna across the globe (Spinage 1986). The situation attracted global attention towards conservation and preservation of wild resources forcing creation of national parks, private parks and zoos. The major concern was to protect and preserve species which were at the edge of extinction. According to IUCN SSC Antelope specialist group (2008), globally approximately 65 000 flora and fauna species get extinct on yearly basis as from the early 1970s. Moyo (2000) defines fragmentation as a disruption of extensive habitat into isolated and small patches. The factors that contribute towards conservancy fragmentation are global population pressure, political instability and economic recession caused global conservancy fragmentation. Social and political instability have contributed to the subdivision of the Amazon basin in Brazil, national resources in Tanzania during the Ujama resettlement scheme and the conversion of 30% of the total area of Botswana game reserve to sugar cane plantation in the early 1990s (Whitmore.et al 1992 andKoewals ,2000). African hunting adventures, (2001) and Moyo,(2000) Chenje (2000) pointed out that, this fuelled poaching, rapid cutting down of vegetation for land clearing. African hunting adventures, (2001), cited that wildlife production was reduced by almost 65% in Zimbabwe.

History of Roan Antelope
In the conservancy the antelope is one of the most successful species. The species has more than 30 sub specie which is also found in the region (Southern Africa). Benedetti et al (2001) investigated that among the subspecies, the sable antelope is the largest and most successful with a growth rate of 1.4 per year. Roan Antelope is the second successful subspecies and it is under reintroduction with maximum conservation measures being put in many parts of southern Africa (Guisto at el 2001).According to African hunting adventures (2001), Roan Antelope is listed in the red list of IUCN and in appendix ii of CITES.
Roan antelope (hippotragus simum) is of vital importance for nutrient cycling in the savannah ecosystem in which it lives. It serves as an important prey species for its predators (lion, cheetah).In Zimbabwe especially in the study area it attracted eco-tourism activities and trophy hunting as a result of its unique horns and shining coat. The species also has hides of high economic value, useful for belts, handbag, shoes and coat making. However Roan Antelope provides marketable bush meat (African hunting adventurers, 2001).

Problem Statement
Despite conservation measures being applied in Roan Antelope (hippotragus simum) protection by the IUCN, Chiredzi river conservancy is now facing serious problems that led to conservancy fragmentation as a result of agricultural cropping activities encroachment. Massive destruction of biodiversity in the conservancy jeopardizing food management for wildlife. Parallel management of the conservancy becomes a second solid challenge in the industry. The tension rose between rural district council, Parks and wildlife department and the conservancy management board over which organisation deals with the allocation and approval of quatos.
Drastic change in land tenure and security caused wildlife habitats in Chiredzi river conservancy to be put under tremendous pressure (Moyo, 2000). Massive translocation and out migration of Roan Antelope to other areas become one of the outstanding problem contributing to extinction of the species in the study area. Heavy poaching and habitat encroachment became the day to day problem affecting the business of wildlife management in the conservancy which demands immediate practical mitigation measures.
Therefore the central focus of this study is to make an investigation on the impact of conservancy fragmentation on the population distribution and feeding patterns of Roan Antelope in chiredzi river conservancy in chiredzi north district.

General objective
To investigate the impact of conservancy (habitat) fragmentation on thepopulation distribution and feeding habits of roan antelope (hippotragus simum).
Specific objectives 1. To assess changes in population distribution and feeding patterns of the roan antelope (hippotragus simum) in the Chiredzi river conservancy. 2. To analyse the effects on the changes in population distribution and feeding patterns of roan antelope (hippotragus simum) in the Chiredzi river conservancy. 3. To evaluate the current conservation and protection strategies for roan antelope (hippotragus simum) in the area

Hypothesis
Null hypotheses H0 There is no significant relationship between forage quality and species rephus.
H0 There is no relationship between physiological characteristics and BMR.

The rationale of the study to the cooperate world
Due to increased habitat loss and the subsequent decline in the roan antelope (hippotragus simum) along with failing attempts to curb unnecessary destruction of vegetation and poaching in Zimbabwe and the whole of Southern Africa, the research outcome shall help in several ways: The outcome will inform governmentthe cooperate world to join hands together to look into wildlife welfare. and as well as on policy formulation and decision making about the protection of roan antelope (hippotragus simum).
Suggestions and recommendations from this research shall be useful to the Ministry of Environment and Tourism on the appropriate actions to be taken pertaining to protection of roan antelope (hippotragus simum) which is currently under threat of extinction in Zimbabwe.
The research outcomes shall also inform Chiredzi river conservancy and other conservancies on the way forward on wildlife food management, strategies likely to solve the problems and improvements to be made in the conservancy. The research also aims to play a major role towards the attainment of this objective, thus the ruthless exploitation of the earth capital because the resilience of the ecosystem is limited and the danger point has already been reached.
Lastly the study will also act as a basis or provide grounding for other coming studies.

Location
Chiredzi river conservancy is located in Chiredzi North district of Masvingo province. The conservancy consisting of privately owned estates. The conservancy is dissected by two major rivers. These rivers include Chiredzi River found to the far east of the conservancy and Mungwezi River to the central western side of the conservancy. They drain from the North West to the south east. The conservancy stretches from the north where it demarcates Zaka and Chiredzi districts to the south.

Physical characteristics
Chiredzi river conservancy is located in natural region 5. The area receives erratic rainfall of less than or equal to 250 mm per annum and with temperatures that ranges from 25degrees Celsius to 27.5 degrees Celsius (Chenje 1998). It also record temperatures that may be higher up to 40degrees Celsius in October and in mid January. However, the temperatures can drop to 9degrees Celsius in early June to mid July. Meanwhile November to mid December will be the wettest months that receive 70% of the total rainfall received in the area per rain season (Peterson, 1991).
Chiredzi River Conservancy covers a total area of 89 482 hectares. The conservancy is situated 500meters above sea level and found 21 0 ,20 1 latitude and 30 0 ,27 1 longitudes. The soils that forms 89% in this area are known as regosol .Regosol are deep medium grained sands with poor horizonation. The central belt of the conservancy consists of soils derived from basalt. Basalt are black clays which are sticky when wet and crack when dry (Nyamapfene 1991).The conservancy is dotted with good salt pans all over but mainly the western side .The study area consists of good and highly palatable grasses species aristida, dactyloctenium,panicum,brachiaria and digitaria. Tree specie Brachestiga species, compretum Mopani, strychnos ssp, and acacia dominated 65% of the conservancy.

Assumption of the Study
The researcher made the following assumption. 1. A habitat characteristic controls the population distribution and feeding patterns of roan antelope. 2. Habitat fragmentation affect the population distribution of roan antelope 3. Feeding habits significantly correlates to the physiology of roan antelope.

Research Design
Research design is an analytical plan for selecting subjects' research instruments that are employed for data collection, enhancing clear data analysis, which answers research objectives (Tuli, 1993). In this particular research qualitative and quantitative research designs were used. In this research the researcher employed in-depth interviews, direct observation, and written documents. The information which were given out by qualitative research methods include physical feeding patterns of the Roan Antelope being made possible with the use of direct observation, management strategies employed currently for the Roan Antelope, documentary feeding habits of the Roan Antelope in the conservancy as well as the bio-physiology demography of the species.

Quantitative Research Design
Employed to collect data that critically shows a significant shortfall of required nutrients needed for a normal growth of a species. Variables are experimentally tested and values are statistically tested to find level of significance. Variables that are measured and tested in this research include dental description; mass and height. These variables are important in determining the general physiological body growth of the species under investigation. Hay analysis as one of the variables of interest is so essential to be examined as it helping in depicting the state of forage in the conservancy.
Population and reproductive rate were tested and examined.

Population and Sampling Procedure
In this study ten Roan Antelope were selected using stratified systematic sampling so as to avoid bias in species selection and as a result the selected species will represent a true picture of the species found in the conservancy. Chairman of the conservancy, Parks and Wildlife Officer, Chiredzi Rural District Chief Executive Officer, ecologist and ranger were selected for further investigation and were chosen using the convenience sampling. This sampling technique saves time and allowed the researcher to gather information from the most appropriate respondents targeted.

Observation
The observation was done for twelve months that started from the commencement of the project right up to the end of the study. Information observed would be recorded by making use of observational diaries. Information of interest observed includes sex, herd size, grid location, orphans, palatable grass and trees species and finally carcasses observed. The researcher would be constrained by not being able to observe other roan antelopes in some of the paddocks regarded as restrictive areas.
In completing the data sheet the observer used grid numbers to show the area where the species were observed. Answers were given as 0 when no occurrence was observed and actual values (1, 2, 3….n) when an occurrence observed. Under the column for carcasses, the number observed and causes for death were represented with numerical values and letters used respectively, N for natural causes, P for poaching and U for unknown.

Field Measurements
The Field measurements were carried out within the study area. ten captured Roan Antelopes were fitted according to the collar coding system . Their weight, height and dental characteristics were measured for physiological determination.Their movement and fate were closely monitored once per month in a period of twelve months. Monitoring took place within a time space of 4 months so as to allow sufficient mixing of the species which will help the researcher in estimating the population of the Roan Antelope species. After recapturing their weight, height and dental characteristics were re-measured and analysed.

Examination of general species physiology
Determination of teeth eruption Nomenclature deciduous teeth and permanent teeth examined.

Examination of old skull in determination of species teeth eruption stage
In preparing the specimen on an old skull carcass, the gum line can often be determined by the line of staining on the teeth useful in estimating the age at which the species died. necessary steps Step 1: The skull boiled in water at 125 degrees cecius Step 2: Two handfuls of sodium per borate powder added in boiling water and left for 15 minutes so as to clean and bleach the specimen for easy recognition of ridges on the teeth and level of eruption.

Examination of teeth eruption of captured species
The following is the characteristics of a full set of teeth formula employed by the researcher in analysing teeth eruption stage:

2(i [0/3] c [0/1] pm [3/2] m [3/3]), whereby i-Incisor, c-canines, pm-premolars and m-molars
Step 1: The captured species were injected with tranquilizers Step2: The mouths of each of the species were then widened for clear teeth examination. The procedure took almost 2-3 hours for each of the individual species to get the required information. The data obtained was recorded in the collection data sheet like the one below.

Calculation of Height
Height, is the vertical standing distance measured from the shoulder to the hooves. The distance measured using a clinical measuring tape.

Calculation of weight
In this particular research weight was derived from the breast chest width through calibrating the results into kilograms using the calibration table.

Measurement of horn size
Horn size was measured using a photogrammetric device mounted on a 300mm lens. This device determines the distance between the camera and the object being photographed, allowing measurements to be obtained from photographs with 99% accuracy.The information pertaining to weight, height, horn size and dental characteristics was recorded in the field patrol data sheet in appendix B.
Determination of roan antelope population in the study area.

Calculation for general population estimation of Roan Antelope
The population of the roan antelope species was determined by using the Lincoln index. The index is calculated as follows:

Calculation for population viability analysis of Roan Antelope
This was done mathematically using the formula below: r = N t =No e rt Source: (Lenore, 2009), Where: r is the difference in the size of the population at two censuses divided by the time interval between the censuses. The formula's parameters were biologically tested true and described as the Malthusians parameters. N 0 is population at initial survey N t is the population observed at time t The conditions when r=0 shows that the population is stable, r≤0 clearly shows that the population is declining and when r≥0 if the population is increasing. Then therefore r is the actual rate of growth of the population

Calculation for growth rate (species population variation) in relation to food availability
Population growth is usually density dependent modelled by the following logistic equation below: x=y z=y

T=2/v-r) ln N m T=
Where: T-Time expected for a population of a given size to become extinct r-The population's maximum size which will call the population ceiling V-the variance of R attributed to environmental fluctuation ∏-algebraic parameter Further more, the species extinction rate observed only when V >2rand also when V<2r showed that the population is moving towards their carrying capacity. More so if the variables are as follows V = 2r implies that the population is in a position to reach their maximum life expectancy.
Source: (Michael et al, 2008) Determination of the forage quality in the conservancy The researcher used the proximate analysis to analyse the nutritional content of the feed. The feeds were divided into six fractions which are moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract (organic acids contained in plant leaves pigments) and nitrogen free extractions. The analysis was carried out at Malilangwe laboratories. Apparatus used include scale, sulphuric acid, sodium hydroxide, burner, beaker, muffle furnace, 1kg of digested sample and the boric acid.

Nitrogen free extractions (NFE)
This fraction consists of compounds such as the water soluble vitamins and any other feed component that has not been accounted for. It principally comprises of starch and sugar. It often constitutes the greatest proportion of the feed which therefore makes it a crucially important feed fraction.NFE is so essential for energy giving in animals. It is calculated using the following equation: NFE (g/kg) = 1000-(ASH + CF + EE +CP) Where CP-crude protein, CF -crude fibre NFE-nitrogen free extract

Crude protein
It is the amount of protein in a feed sample. Protein is a complex organic compound contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen converted into fat and carbohydrates by animal cell. It is composed of two polypeptide chains held together by disulphide bridges. Protein estimated with the amount of nitrogen in the feed consists 50% of total dry mass of hay. It is expressed in g/kg of hay. The procedures for estimating crude protein are as follows: Step 1: digested sample were put in sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) for 15 minutes H 2 SO 4 converted all nitrogen present in the feed sample into ammonia (NH 2 ) and only nitrogen from nitrates converted into ammonia (NH 2 ) and nitrogen from nitrites is not easily converted.
Step 2: sodium hydroxide is then added to the sample for 10 minutes.
This was done as to liberate the ammonia (NH 2 ) in the feed sample. This helps to distil the ammonia NH 2 into standard boric acid Step 3: the extracted boric acid is titrated till the concentration was normalising. The volume obtained was measured in moles and expressed into percentage using standard expression to come up with the volume of nitrogen.
In estimating crude protein some assumptions are put forward:  All nitrogen present is from the crude protein  Nitrogen is derived from protein which contains 16% nitrogen so the nitrogen is multiplied by 6.25 (100/16) for easy conversion of the findings into moles

Ether extract
This fraction contains lipids (lipoproteins), organic acids, alcohol and pigments. Ether extract is obtained through the following procedure Step 1: first hydrolysing the digested sample with sulphuric acid for10 minutes. The Case of Chiredzi River Conservancy Step 2: Feed sample was then subjected to continuous extraction with petroleum ether till the reaction normalises. The residual obtained is known as acid ether extract (g/kg).

Crude fibre
This fraction measures the indigestible components and bulkiness of the food. It is obtained as a residual after successive boiling of the material in 0.26N/ 0.23N sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ).
Step 1: A sample put in a 120 degrees Celsius boiling of 0.26Nsulphuric acid for 25 minutes.
Step 2: the residue again put into 0.23 N sulphuric acids for 15 minutes. This was done to allow for further digestion of the cellulose till the required fibre is obtained.
Step 3: The residual brought out of the beaker and weighed and expressed in g/kg.

Ash
The ash content was determined by drying the ash of the sample at 550 o C in a muffle furnace until all the carbon has been removed. The mass of the ash is then measured and expressed as g/kg of the hay.
Source: (Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and systematic, 2003)

Calculation for energy requirements estimation in Roan Antelope
The estimation was roughly drawn by the following mathematical formula which was biologically tested BMR =70 x W 3/4 total bmr estimation of a species of (w) kg BMR= 70 W 3/4 KJ  BMR is basal metabolic rate ,that is the energy consumed per day while at complete rest measured in kilocalories  W is the body mass  70 and ¾ are biological tested constants Calculation for significance of variations in feeding habits and physiological characteristics The Pearson's product moment(r) of correlation co-efficient employed. r=

Interviews
In this research, the researcher employed the interview to exhume information on the feeding habits of Roan Antelope before 2000 fast track land reform programme and that necessary for evaluating the conservation and protection strategies being employed in the management of Roan Antelope.

Secondary Data
The researcher gathered the information through the use of text books, journals and telegraphs in this research.

Data Analysis Plan
Data was analysed through statistical means and descriptive reports. The data in this particular research was presented in the form of tables, line graphs, , and bar graphs and in narrative reports.

Written Documents, Interviews and Observation Data Presentation
Analysis on the Changes in land ownership in river conservancy as from 1998-2009 In 1998 chiredzi conservancy was owned by 11 whites and only one black family. However in 2009 and as a result of the fast track land reform and resettlement programme the conservancy became significantly fragmentated among 3 056 blacks and 5 white families but whose hacterage was heavily reduced.

Analysis on the changes in population distribution and feeding patterns of roan antelope as from 2000-2009
100 The Impact of Conservancy Fragmentation on the Population Distribution and Feeding Patterns of Roan Antelope 2000-2009: The Case of Chiredzi River Conservancy

Analyses on the effects in changes of population distribution and feeding habits of roan antelope 1998 -2009 in chiredzi river conservancy
Results from field measurements for physiological characteristics of a Roan Antelope.  Where Pe -permanent teeth at eruption stage M -milk teeth (deciduous teeth) P -permanent teeth    From the readily available grass species in the conservancy the above three grass specie are the most common. The researcher observed that among them, panicum is the mostly dominant species followed by dactyloctenium and aristida. Meanwhile among them in terms of total Nitrogen free extraction (N F E) content test results show that aristida had the highest content. From analysis of the results from experimental examination of feed sample of 1000g, aristida constitutes 668g/kg. However the aristida has poor protein content that is less than 150 g/kg of feeding sample. Research findings show that the state of forage in the conservancy is relatively poor. It significantly contributed to the fall of total average BMR by 14.6% among the Roan Antelope species. In addition from experimental analysis there is need to add some antibiotics when mixing small amounts with the feed which will alter the microbial population of the rumen and intestine, resulting in improved growth and feed efficiency and also adding certain chemicals and hormones that stimulate growth by altering chemical reactions in the body. The graph shows that panicum is currently the highly nutritious grass species found in the conservancy. From observation the state of the panicum grass species is in poor condition due to heavy grazing from all grazers such as buffaloes, cattle, zebras and other small grazers.

Results from statistical analysis of related variables tested
From experimental analysis of the results in this research the forage quality directly controls the rephus (birth interval) in Roan Antelope. The correlation coefficient was tested using the Pearson's product moment and the result obtained was 0.9786. This shows that the forage quality is directly related to and controls the birth interval (rephus). The results analysis explaining that forage quality significantly controls estrus in wildlife (Kumar et al 2004).The statistical test also revealed that BMR is strongly linked to the physiological characteristics of the Roan Antelope. This shows that BMR is a function of physiological characteristics of a species. The Case of Chiredzi River Conservancy

Evaluation of conservation and management strategies applied in the conservancy.
One of the ranch manager in Wasara Wasara ranch stated that at the present moment there are several management and conservation strategies that were being practised and implemented in the conservancy. These strategies include the use of laws and regulations, awareness campaigns (community out reach), engaging in community projects, and introduction of protected area systems (I.P.Z), Restocking and Translocation.
The environmentalists highlighted that among six strategies they employed in the conservancy management, two of them came out with meaningful results. Community out reach and engaging in community project development were the two strategies that helped the local community to realise that through conservation of natural resources, there are long term benefits. He further castigated that a total of 600 villages out of 1 500 villages resettled in the conservancy were reached every year as from 2004 to date. However he pointed out that the total number of people reached was not enough as compared to the magnitude of the impact imposed due to fast track land reform to wildlife.
Meanwhile, since translocation was a better motive in the management of Roan Antelope, financial constraints remained a major draw back as stated by the Ranch Manager. He pointed out that the only way to do away with drastic decline in wildlife specie thus to move out the species to safer destination such as in Chipinda Pools which 259 km south of the conservancy which was not affected by 2000 fast track land reform programme. One of the chief Ecologists operating in the conservancy stated that the only option left that can save the remaining population in the conservancy is thus to create intensive protected zones in the area and later release the population in natural nature only when the population is viable. He further pointed out that efforts were being made but the remaining challenge remains lack of financial and moral support from the government. Even though the area was allocated it is too small to accommodate full and free ranching area of roan antelope because the species require an area of more than 10 000 hectares per year for grazing only while the area allocated tally to 6000 hectares.
The parks and wildlife warden officer in the conservancy highlighted that though there were sign of good l effort done but there are still a lot to be done since the conservancy management board did not have performance bottom line and were not kept accountable for the day to day transactions. He added that among the laws and legislation put forward nothing of them was found working in the conservancy since poachers were not dealt with accordily. He stated that most cases of poaching rose were ending up politised.
One of the respondents in the conservancy stated that the government and other interested organisation have to chip in and facilitating immediate re arrangement of resettlements to those already resettled. He further highlighted that this will help in the re-demarcation of the conservancy which will act as a panacea to the prevailing problems than trying restocking and translocation of specie where he concluded as waste of time and resources.
From the observation the researcher concluded that from all management practises being implemented in the conservancy were worth full only when the government clearly re-arrange the farmers according to resource bases as well as capability.

Conclusions
The research findings concluded that violation of wildlife rights was seriously committed in the conservancy as a result of 2000 fast track land reform programme. Habitat compression significantly affected the feeding patterns of Roan Antelope. The research revealed that lack of required nutritional elements in feed sample imposed negative impacts to the general Roan antelope physiological characteristics especially it slows body growth ,delayed teeth eruption and significantly affecting estrus in female. The findings concluded that Roan Antelope is facing extinction in the Chiredzi river conservancy. The research find some recommendations that works in safe guarding the rapid extinction of the species such as the translocation and introduction of intensive protected zones(I .T .Z).However the research pointed out that financial constrains and political instability prevailing in Zimbabwe hindering the implementation of all these management strategies.

Recommendations
 The government has to bring the fast track land reform programme to finality by regularizing resettlement in the Chiredzi river conservancy. This will save wildlife from rampant poaching and from further unnecessary encroachment of agricultural activities.  There is need for creation of intensive protected zones (I.P.Z) in the conservancy so as to uphold the population of the species in the area, more so the department of parks and wildlife has to be part and parcel of the motive.  The state has to provide social, financial and moral support to the conservancy; by giving wild life management an economic, social and environmental comparative advantage. In addition there is need to modify institutions, laws and norms as to translate wildlife comparative advantage into real incentives for landholders to take up conservation as a viable social, economic and biological business.