English for Specific Purposes (ESP): A Holistic Review

English for Specific Purposes, known as acronym-‘ESP’, has been a distinct activity in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) since 1960s. The flowering period of ESP has been identified due to many incidents like the second world war in 1945, the rapid expansion in scientific, the growth of science and technology, the increased use of English as the international language of science, technology and business, the increased economic power of certain oil-rich countries and increased numbers of international students studying in English Speaking countries. Needs analysis is the key essence of ESP. The paper reviews the history and development of ESP, the notion of needs analysis in ESP setting and some important components of ESP needs analysis. Finally the paper critically reviews the ESP needs analysis models. TSA (Target Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), MA (Means Analysis) and Language Audit are the salient features of needs analysis in any ESP context. In the field of ESP, there are a number of models of needs analysis such as Munby (1978), McDonough (1984), Hutchinson & Waters (1987), Robinson (1991), West (1994), Jordan (1997) and Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998). These theoretical models are similar to a certain extent that they aim at identifying the English language needs of the learners. The paper provides the readers with a solid review on some ESP needs


Introduction
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is not General English (GE) teaching and learning, but it is specialized English. It has been growing as a distinct discipline since 1960s. ESP is focused-English learning and teaching situation in which teaching methods and learning environment are different from General English. The most important difference between ESP and GE (General English) is that the learners and their purposes for learning English. ESP learners are usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and learn the language so as to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular profession-related activities. An ESP course is therefore developed based on an assessment of purposes and needs and the activities for which English is needed. ESP centers more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. It covers subjects varying from Business or Medical Sciences to Tourism and Hospitality Management. The ESP crucial point is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the learners'' real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners. However, GE (General English) and ESP differ not only in the nature of the learners, but also in the aim of instruction. In fact, in General English teaching, all four-language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally. However, in ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed by the learners, and the syllabus is designed accordingly. For example, an ESP program might emphasize the development of writing skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in Business Administration. An ESP program might promote the development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist guides.
In fact, ESP researchers and practitioners need to know the definitions, history and development of ESP, the main features of ESP, the needs assessment process and so forth. They also need to know how an effective needs assessment can be carried out. They have to know these features to develop ESP programs and carry out researches. English used for business purposes may be different from English used in medical purposes. The basic conceptual knowledge on ESP fundamentals is so inevitable for ESP researchers or ESP practitioners or students. In this perspective, the paper discusses the development, history and concept of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The paper also elucidates the notion of needs analysis, the components of needs analysis in ESP setting, some important theoretical models of needs assessment that are the significant and fundamental features in the field of ESP.

History and Development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
English for Specific Purposes or ESP has emerged as a single field in the 1960's. The emergence of ESP has resulted from many occurrences like the second world war in 1945, the rapid expansion in scientific, the growth of science and technology, the increased use of English as the international language of science, technology and business, the increased economic power of certain oil-rich countries and increased numbers of international students studying in UK, USA, and Australia. Hutchinson and Waters [1] state that in ESP context, the outcomes of the historical occurrences resulted from a number of people across the globe who wanted to learn English language due to the key language for the fields of science, technology and commerce. The emergence of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching movement resulted from the English language needs of the learners for specific purposes in accordance with their professions or job description. Since the emergent years in the 1960s, ESP has become a vital and innovative activity within the Teaching of English as a Foreign or Second Language movement (TEFL/TESL) as described by Howatt [2] Hutchinson and Waters [1] define that ESP is an approach to language learning and it is based on learners' need. What they mean is that ESP does not involve a particular kind of language, teaching material or methodology". They suggest that the foundation of ESP involves the learners, the language required and the learning contexts which are based on the primacy of need in ESP. Strevens [3] formulates a definition of ESP, which makes a distinction between four absolute characteristics and two variable characteristics .
Robinson [4] emphasizes the primacy of needs analysis in defining ESP. Her definition is based on two key defining criteria and a number of characteristics that are important aspects for ESP. Her key criteria are that "ESP is normally goal-directed' and that ESP courses develop from a needs analysis, which aims to specify as closely as possible what exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English" [4, p3]. Her characteristics are that ESP courses are generally constrained by a limited time period in which their objectives have to be achieved, and are taught to adults in 'homogeneous classes' in terms of the work or specialist studies that the students are involved in. Robinson [4] delineates that ESP as an enterprise, which involves education, training and practice, and drawing upon three major realms of knowledge: language, pedagogy and the students' specialist areas of interest.
Dudley-Evans & St John [5] provide their definition of ESP. They also use absolute and variable characteristics of ESP as Strevens [3] centers on defining ESP.
Absolute characteristics: 1. ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner; 2. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves; 3. ESP is centered on the language (grammar. Lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to those activities.
Variable characteristics: 1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; 2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of 'General English'; 3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners; either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school level; 4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners.
The definition that Dudley-Evans & St John [5] offer is clearly influenced by that of Strevens [3] and they have included more variable characteristics. Their division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP.
ESP has traditionally been divided into two classified main branches such as English for Academic Purposes or EAP and English for Occupational Purposes or EOP [1][2][3][4][5]. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) refers to any English teaching that relates to academic study needs [4,5]. Dudley-Evans & St John [5] argue that in the area of EAP, English for Science and Technology (EST) has been identified as the focal area, but English for Medical Purposes (EMP) and English for Legal Purposes (ELP) have always gained their places. More recently, English for Management, Finance, and Economics (EMFE) has increasingly been important to Master of Business Administration (MBA) courses. According to Robinson [4,p21], "EOP (English for Occupational Purposes) involves work-related needs and training". Dudley-Evans & St. John [5] elucidate that the term, EOP includes professional purposes in administration, medicine, law and business, and vocational purposes for non-professionals in work or pre-work situations. For example, English for Medical Purposes (EMP) is a course focusing on practicing doctors and English for Business Purposes (EBP) is developed for communicative functioning of English in business contexts. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1, p17], "EOP is also known as EVP (English for Vocational Purposes) and VESL (Vocational English as a Second Language)".

Notion of Needs Analysis in ESP Setting
The term, "analysis of needs" first appeared in the 1920's in the West Bengal, a province of India when Michael West introduced the concept of "needs" to cover what learners will be required to do with the foreign language in the target situation and how learners might best master the language during the period learning. After 1920's the term, needs analysis came to an end to exist until 1960 when the term, 'English for Specific Purposes' appeared at the Makerere Conference (Commonwealth Education Committee in 1961) as West [6] states.
The key stage in ESP is needs analysis. Needs analysis is the corner stone of ESP and leads to a focused course [5,6,7,8,9,10]. According to Robinson [4, p7], "needs analysis is generally regarded as critical to ESP, although ESP is by no means the only educational enterprise which makes use of it". Strevens [3] suggests that needs analysis is a necessary first step for specific purposes language teaching; it is more concerned with the nature of scientific discourse. Hutchinson and Waters [1, p53] argue, "any language course should be based on needs analysis". Hamp-Lyons [11] opines that needs analysis is fundamental component to an ESP/EAP approach in term of course design.
Dudley-Evans & St John [5] define as, "needs analysis is the process of establishing the what and how of a course". They argue as, "needs analysis is neither unique to language teaching-needs assessment, for example, is the basis of training programs and aid-development programs-nor, within language training, is it unique to LSP (Language for Special Purposes) and thus to ESP". They stress three aspects of needs analysis. Dudley-Evans & St John [5, p126)] state as: "First, needs analysis aims to know learners as people, as language users and as language learners. Second, needs analysis study also aims to know how language learning and skills learning can be maximized for a given learner group. Third, needs analysis study aims to know the target situations and learning environment so that data can appropriately be interpreted".
It is obvious that needs analysis is a very crucial first step prior to designing and developing a language course, producing materials for teaching and learning, and developing language test. West [6] states that language needs analysis is essentially a pragmatic activity focused on specific situations, although grounded in general theories, such as the nature of language and curriculum. Therefore, in the ESP/EAP context, needs analysis is crucial in determining the aspects of language that are crucial for a particular area of teaching [6]. Robinson [4] suggests, needs analysis is not only just for determining the "what and how of a language of teaching". She also suggests that needs analysis should be repeated so that it can be built into the formative process. She also suggests that this would lead to a very informative database of learners, sponsors, subject-specialists and above all ESP practitioners' view and opinions of English language [4].
ESP practitioners should undertake the needs analysis. The main sources for needs analysis are the learners, people working or studying in the field, ex-students, documents relevant to the field, clients, employers, colleagues and ESP research in the field [5]. The main instruments for executing needs analysis study are questionnaire, analysis of authentic spoken and written texts, discussions, structured interviews, observations and assessments [1,4,5]. It is important for ESP practitioners to carry out needs analysis study prior to developing and designing an ESP syllabus, a course, selecting a teaching approach and other relevant processes that require needs analysis. Generally speaking, where there is no needs analysis, there is no ESP course.
In summary, a language needs analysis is a process that must be conducted prior to a language course and syllabus design, materials selection, teaching and learning methodology and evaluation. The ESP practitioners should be able to utilize the results of needs analysis research which he or she conducts to develop a language course or training program that is suitable, practical and successful for a particular context. The main instruments for executing language needs analysis study are questionnaire, structured interviews, observations, analysis of authentic spoken and written texts, discussions, and assessments.

Components of ESP Needs Analysis
Different components of language needs analysis are employed to investigate different focuses and issues in language planning, development, teaching and learning. Many ESP scholars suggest that TSA (Target Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis) are the fundamental components for assessing language needs of learners.

Target Situation Analysis (TSA)
Target Situation Analysis (TSA) refers to form of needs analysis, which centers on identifying the learners' language requirements in the occupational or academic setting [6]. "The earliest TSA procedures were designed to determine 'how much English' was used" [6]. Robinson [4,p8) argues, "a needs analysis, which focuses on students' needs at the end of a language course, can be called a TSA (Target Situation Analysis)". Chambers [9] introduced and discussed this term. Munby [12] formulates the best-known framework of TSA type of needs analysis. He presents a communicative needs processor, comprising a set of parameters within which information on the students' target situation can be plotted. The model formulated by Munby has, widely, been studied and discussed. Comprehensive data banks are among its useful features. For example, micro-skills and attitudes can be used as checklists for the resultant syllabus. A helpful insight, codified by Munby, relates to target-level performance: for certain jobs students may require only a low level of accuracy. Therefore, TSA may pinpoint the stage at which 'good enough' competence for the job is reached as Munby [12] suggests.
Dudley-Evans & St. John [5, p124] define TSA as, "TSA refers to task and activities learners are/will be using English for target situation". They state that TSA generally uses questionnaire as the instrument. Dudley-Evans and St. John [5, p124] also explain as: "TSA includes objective, perceived and product-oriented needs. The objective and perceived needs are derived by outsiders from facts, from what is known and can be verified. Therefore, 'to be able to spell English words correctly' is an objective/perceived need. Product-oriented needs are derived from the goal or target situation".

Learning Situation Analysis (LSA)
Learning Situation Analysis (LSA) refers to subjective, felt and process-oriented needs [5]. LSA also directs what learners want to learn. Dudley-Evans and St. John [5] state that LSA means effective ways of learning the skills and language. According to them, LSA also refers to why do learners want to learn. They elucidate that subjective and felt needs are derived from insiders and correspond to cognitive and affective factors. Therefore, 'to feel confident' is a subjective/felt need [5]. They also explain that process-oriented needs originate from the learning situation.

Present Situation Analysis (PSA)
Robinson [4] delineates that PSA (Present Situation Analysis) seeks to ascertain what the students are akin to at the start of their language course, looking into their strengths and weaknesses. Dudley-Evans & St. John [5, p124) state that PSA estimates strengths and weaknesses in language, skills and learning experiences. Richterich and Chancerel [13] formulate the most extensive range of devices for establishing the PSA. They suggest that there are three basic sources of information: the students themselves, the language-teaching establishment, and the 'user-institution', for example the students' place of work. For each of these, an ESP practitioner seeks information regarding their respective levels of ability; their resources; and their views on language teaching and learning. They also recommend that ESP practitioners might also study the surrounding society and culture: the attitude held towards English language and towards the learning and use of a foreign language [13]. Munby [12] argues that PSA represents constraints on the TSA. According to McDonough [14], PSA involves 'fundamental variables', which must clearly be considered before the TSA. In practice, one is likely to seek and find information relating to both TSA and PSA simultaneously. Thus, needs analysis may be seen as a combination of TSA and PSA.
Here are the following statements developed by Dudley-Evans & St John [5, p124] under the headings TSA (Target Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis):

Means Analysis
Holliday and Cook [15] assert that means analysis can be considered as an adjunct to needs analysis to establish a workable course design. Dudley-Evans & St John [5] state that means analysis directs the environment in which a course will be run or the environment in which a project will take root, grow healthily and survive. Means analysis involves information of the local situation (e.g., the teachers, teaching methods, management, students facilities, etc) to see how a language course may be implemented [7,15].

Dudley-Evans & St John [5, p124] depict means analysis as:
"Means analysis is an acknowledgement that what works well in one situation may not work in another". For example, while hotel staff around the world may share some similar language needs, how they learn the language, the conditions in which they are learning and where and how they apply the language are not the same". Mountford (1988) and Swales (1989), cited in [6], have developed the scope of means analysis further by suggesting other factors which need to be considered by curriculum specialist if they want to the courses to have the possibility to succeed in an 'alien' learning environment. Swales list five factors:

Language Audits
Jordan [7, p28] states as "language audits are large-scale research in examining language needs". He suggests that language audits are executed for companies, regions or countries. Pilbeam (1979) also suggests the similar views on language audits. He suggests that language audits are used to plot the role played by foreign language in a commercial or industrial enterprise [Pilbeam, 1979 cited in 4]. Language audits provide data about the current situation of language needs in the sector and to a certain extent; language audits do help lead the government to develop an integrated policy or strategy which would take months or years to implement [6]. However, language audits should not be of great concern to most ESP/EAP teachers. This is because ESP/EAP contexts are small or medium scales in nature, and there is no immediate concern to carry out the language audits [6].

Models of ESP Needs Analysis
In ELT teaching, needs analysis survey is the basis of training program and aid-development program .In ESP, the situation is also the same that needs analysis is conducted prior to every program that is to be developed. In the field of ESP, there are a number of proponents of needs analysis such as Munby (1978), McDonough (1984), Hutchinson & Waters (1987), Robinson (1991), West (1994), Jordan (1997) and Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998). The models of ESP needs analysis that were suggested by these writers are similar to a certain extent that they tried to identify the English language needs of the learners. However, the writers have their own views on the focus of needs analysis, the data analysis and the development of the training program in the context of ESP. In this section, I attempt to critically review the models by these pioneers in the field of ESP.
The most common model for analyzing linguistic needs is Munby's "Communicative Syllabus Design (1978), which is very early model of analyzing ESP needs. The model is illustrated in Figure 1.
The model suggested by Munby provides the participants' needs, which are analyzed in terms of the "Purposive Domain" (ESP classification), "Setting", "Interaction", "Instrumentality" (medium, mode, and channel), "Dialect", "Target Level", "Communicative Event"(activities and subject matters), and "Communicative Key" (the manner in which communicative needs to be carried out. As for Munby, he concentrated more on communicative syllabus design where the end product is a profile of the students language needs after using his model, 'Communication Needs Processor'. His 'Communication Needs Processor' (CNP) was a detailed profile of the students' needs. For its details and its influence on subsequent needs analysis, His model, 'Communication Needs Processor' (CNP) has its limitations. It only produces an unordered list of linguistics features, as Hutchinson and Waters [1] point out that the model does not consider the target needs from different standpoints (of teachers, learners, and sponsors). Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) pinpoint what Munby does not include is to prioritize the information and Munby does not also include effective factors which Dudley-Evans & St. John consider as important. West [6] opposes Munby's works. He states that Munby's attempt to being systematic and comprehensive makes his instrument inflexible, complex and time-consuming [6]. Jordan [7] criticizes Munby's works on two aspects that his model is considered as practical constraint after the procedure has been worked. According to Jordan, practical constraints should be considered first. The second aspect is that the language items, chosen for practice in ESP/EAP, should reflect those used in real world (in context), because Munby's classifications of language are derived from social English [7].
Another model, which is one of the early models of ESP needs analysis, is McDonough's (1984) model resulted from Munby's work. McDonough (1984) provides the use of an integrated procedure for needs analysis, which is illustrated above. Firstly, the procedure suggests that students must be at the centre of system. Secondly, the "needs" are not seen as static, but developing and changing. The third aspect is that the system is complex that allows the needs analysis to be carried out from different perspective: learners, teaching institutions and the sponsoring bodies. The fourth aspect of the procedure is that this is great interdependence of decision-makers and decisions. Finally, the procedure also considers the degree of details and explicitness may vary with the requirements of different situations. This model is considered as effective model for ESP needs analysis. However, the model has also its limitations. The model does not concentrate on learning needs. It only concentrates on target and present needs. It does not emphasize other aspects of needs analysis (such as lacks, wants and so forth).
Another model of ESP needs analysis, which was formulated by Hutchinson & Waters (1987). The model is illustrated in Figure 3.  professional information about the students: the tasks and activities students are/will be using English for-target situation analysis (TSA) and objectives needs B. personal information about the students is concerned with learners' general profile, previous language learning experiences.

C.
English language information about the students: what their current skills and language use are-present situation analysis (PSA)-this could allow us to assess (D). PSA determines strengths and weakness in language skills. To sum up, needs analysis frameworks in ESP context should be flexible. Some considerations such as views of different people (learners, sponsors, subject-specialists, English language instructors and ESP practitioners) should also be taken into consideration in terms of comprehensive ESP needs investigation. Such considerations are highly necessary for conducting any needs analysis because they would affect the implementation of research, the development of course and syllabus, methodology and training program as well. The current development in the areas of need analysis in the ESP context witnesses the emergence of refined and more flexible theoretical framework of needs analysis.

Conclusion
In the field of ELT (English Language Teaching), English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is concerned with specific English language needs of the target learners and has been an innovative and distinct field since its inception in 1960s. This term refers to teaching a specific genre of English for students with specific goals. Over the years, it has gained in popularity. Based upon the discussion and analysis, it is perceived that ESP is goal oriented and focused English teaching and learning, designed for the specific learners according to learners' academic and professional needs. The teaching environment, methods and contents used in ESP are not the same as in General English. Many ESP writers assert that needs analysis in ESP setting is so vital for identifying specific needs of the learners as per their academic and professional areas. The needs analysis models, discussed and highlighted in this paper, diverge from each other. However, they focus on the specific needs of the learners. The main components of language needs analysis such as TSA (Target Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation Analysis), PSA (Present Situation Analysis), MA (Means Analysis) should be prioritized and applied in any ESP needs assessment.
The practitioners/researchers in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) should gain a solid knowledge on some fundamental aspects of ESP and ESP theoretical models of needs assessment. Accordingly, the paper has attempted to discuss and review the development, history and notions of ESP, the main instrument, 'needs analysis', some important components and some pragmatic models of ESP needs analysis. To some extent, the researchers or students can benefit from the paper as it is based upon the salient features of English for Specific Purposes.